Twilight of an empire: the later mughals & the rise of the kingmakers (UPSC Notes)

The Hollow Crown: Understanding the Decline of the Mughal Empire (1707-1719)

The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 was not just the end of a reign; it was the beginning of the end for the mighty Mughal Empire. The period that followed, known as the era of the Later Mughals, is a dramatic saga of weak rulers, ambitious nobles, and fatal policy decisions that created a power vacuum, ultimately filled by the British. Imagine the Mughal Empire as a colossal stone arch. For centuries, the Emperor was the keystone, holding everything together. After Aurangzeb, this keystone crumbled, leaving a ‘hollow crown’—a symbol of authority without real power.

The Parade of Ephemeral Emperors

The story of the immediate successors of Aurangzeb is one of rapid, violent, and often pathetic change. The throne became a deadly game of musical chairs, orchestrated by powerful puppet masters.

1. Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712): The Last Breath of Competence

After a bloody two-year war of succession against his brothers, the 63-year-old Prince Muazzam ascended the throne as Bahadur Shah I. He was the last emperor of whom, as historian Sidney Owen noted, “anything favourable can be said.” He tried to reverse some of his father’s rigid policies.

• Policy of Compromise: He made peace with the Rajputs and attempted to pacify the Marathas by releasing Shahu, the son of Sambhaji, from captivity. This was a clever political move, intended to incite a civil war within the Maratha camp, which it did.
• The Sikh Challenge: His reign was troubled by the Sikh rebellion under Banda Bahadur, forcing him to take firm military action in Punjab.

Fun Fact: Due to his tendency to avoid state matters and placate all parties without decisive action, the historian Khafi Khan gave Bahadur Shah I the title ‘Shah-i-Bekhabar’ (The Heedless King), a label that perfectly captured the growing inertia at the heart of the empire.

2. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713): The Puppet and the Wazir

Bahadur Shah I’s death triggered another war of succession, from which his incompetent son, Jahandar Shah, emerged victorious, thanks to the astute kingmaker, Zulfikar Khan. This reign marks the official beginning of the ‘Wazir’ or Prime Minister, holding the real power.

• The Izara System: To fix the empire’s empty coffers, Zulfikar Khan introduced the Izara system. This was a system of revenue farming where the right to collect taxes was sold to the highest bidder. While it provided immediate cash, it led to the ruthless exploitation of the peasantry and long-term agrarian decline.
• Abolition of Jaziya: In a move to win favour with the Hindu chieftains, he abolished the hated Jaziya tax.

3. Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719): The Reign of the ‘Kingmakers’

Jahandar Shah’s frivolous reign was cut short when he was defeated and executed by his nephew, Farrukhsiyar, who was propped up by two immensely powerful nobles: the Sayyid Brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan. They are famously known in history as the ‘Kingmakers.’

• The Golden ‘Farman’ of 1717: In a decision that would change the course of Indian history, Farrukhsiyar granted a farman (royal decree) to the British East India Company. This gave them duty-free trading rights in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa and the right to mint their own coins. This was the economic key that unlocked India for the British, a fatal concession born of political weakness.
• The Inevitable Betrayal: Farrukhsiyar soon grew tired of the Sayyid Brothers’ dominance and plotted against them. However, the Kingmakers outmaneuvered him. In 1719, they allied with the Maratha Peshwa, Balaji Vishwanath, deposed Farrukhsiyar, and later had him blinded and killed—an unprecedented act of a noble killing an emperor.

4. The Shortest Reigns

The Sayyid Brothers then placed two short-lived, sickly princes on the throne.

• Rafi-ud-Darajat (Feb-June 1719): Ruled for the shortest period among all Mughals before succumbing to tuberculosis.

Analogy: Think of the Sayyid Brothers as venture capitalists of the 18th century. They invested their military and political capital in a ‘startup’ (a claimant to the throne), put him in the CEO’s chair (the throne), but retained full control as the board of directors. If the CEO tried to act independently, he was swiftly ‘removed’.

The First Four Later Mughals: A Comparative Glance

Mnemonic for Chronological Order: To remember the first four Later Mughals, use this phrase: Bahadur Jahan For Reality (Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, Farrukhsiyar, Rafi-ud-Darajat)

Critical Policy Appraisal

Analytical Lens: UPSC Focus (Mains & Prelims)

Conceptual Basis: The core issue of this era is the terminal decline of the Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems. These were the pillars of Mughal administration, linking military service to land revenue assignments. When the system broke down due to a shortage of productive jagirs and an excess of mansabdars, the nobility’s loyalty fractured, leading them to carve out their own fiefdoms and play ‘kingmaker’ to protect their interests.

UPSC Integration: Connecting the Dots

• Modern Indian History: The power vacuum created by Mughal decline is the direct precursor to the rise of regional powers (Marathas, Sikhs, Hyderabad, Awadh) and the subsequent colonial conquest by the British. Farrukhsiyar’s farman is a foundational event for the establishment of the British Raj.
• Economy: The introduction of the Izara system is a crucial topic in agrarian history. It marks a shift towards revenue farming, which was later adopted and modified by the British (e.g., Permanent Settlement), with devastating long-term consequences for Indian agriculture and peasantry.
• Polity & Governance: This period is a classic case study of political instability arising from institutional decay. It highlights the dangers of over-centralization under one ruler (Aurangzeb) followed by a sudden collapse of authority, creating a chaotic, feudal-like structure where personal loyalty trumped institutional processes.

Future Impact and Policy Relevance: The fragmentation and economic exploitation of this era made the Indian subcontinent vulnerable to colonization. For modern policymakers, it’s a stark reminder that economic stability, institutional integrity, and a strong, accountable central government are essential to national sovereignty. The consequences of short-sighted economic policies (like the 1717 Farman) show how trade agreements without robust domestic protections can be detrimental.

Prelims Practice MCQ:

Which of the following Later Mughal emperors granted the famous ‘Farman of 1717’ to the British East India Company, giving them significant trade concessions in Bengal?

(a) Bahadur Shah I (b) Jahandar Shah (c) Farrukhsiyar (d) Muhammad Shah

Answer and Explanation: (c) Farrukhsiyar. In 1717, Emperor Farrukhsiyar, heavily influenced by the Sayyid Brothers and seeking political stability, issued a royal decree (farman) that granted the British East India Company duty-free trade rights in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This is often called the ‘Magna Carta’ of the Company and was a pivotal step in its economic and political ascendancy.

Mains Sample Question (15 Marks):

“The decline of the Mughal Empire after 1707 was not merely a result of weak and incompetent rulers but was rooted in a deeper institutional crisis within its administrative and military structures.” Critically analyze this statement.

Mind Map Outline (Revision Structure)

• The Later Mughals (1707-1719): The Era of Decline
  • Core Theme: Shift from Emperor’s authority to Nobles’ power (Kingmakers).
  • Systemic Crises
    • Administrative: Breakdown of Mansabdari & Jagirdari Systems.
    • Economic: Empty treasury, Introduction of the Izara System.
    • Political: Wars of Succession, Rise of Court Factions (Irani, Turani).
  • Key Rulers & Their Policies
    • Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712)
      • Nickname: ‘Shah-i-Bekhabar’.
      • Key Policies:
        • Release of Maratha Prince Shahu.
        • Conciliatory approach towards Rajputs.
        • Conflict with Banda Bahadur.
    • Jahandar Shah (1712-1713)
      • Key Noble: Zulfikar Khan.
      • Key Policies:
        • Introduction of the Izara (revenue farming) system.
        • Abolition of Jaziya.
    • Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)
      • Key Nobles: The Sayyid Brothers (‘Kingmakers’).
      • Key Policies/Events:
        • Farman of 1717: Granted to the British EIC.
        • Killed by his own nobles, a first in Mughal history.
    • Rafi-ud-Darajat (1719)
      • Legacy: Shortest reign, puppet of Sayyid Brothers.
  • Consequences of the Decline
    • Rise of independent regional states (Awadh, Hyderabad).
    • Increased power of the Marathas.
    • Paved the way for British economic and political domination.